Directrices anticipadas en salud mental y el problema de la revocación / Advance directives in mental health and the revocation problem / Diretivas antecipadas em saúde mental e o problema da revogação

Resumen: El presente trabajo busca abordar el problema bioético de la colisión de voluntades que puede ocurrir con ocasión de la implementación de las directrices anticipadas en materia de salud mental, con especial énfasis en las directrices auto vinculantes, señalando ciertos lineamientos a observar con miras a regular adecuadamente esta circunstancia, determinando aquellas manifestaciones y comportamientos que deben contar como revocatorios de las instrucciones contenidas en el documento. Para estos efectos se emplea una metodología consistente en la revisión de la literatura pertinente. Se concluye que resulta imposible hallar una solución que permita satisfacer todos los intereses en conflicto, pero que la implementación de directrices anticipadas eficaces en salud mental requiere de una regulación que les conceda un cierto grado de rigidez, estableciendo, de manera clara y coherente, las circunstancias en que habrán de entenderse revocadas, sea que se emplee una evaluación de capacidad, o que se entregue la determinación de las circunstancias de la revocación al propio usuario.

Abstract: This paper seeks to address the bioethical problem of the collision of wills that may occur during the implementation of advance directives in mental health, with special emphasis on self-binding directives, pointing out certain guidelines to be observed in order to adequately regulate this circumstance, determining those manifestations and behaviors that should count as revocation of the instructions contained in the document. For these purposes, a methodology consisting of a review of the relevant literature is used. It is concluded that it is impossible to find a solution that satisfies all the conflicting interests, but that the implementation of effective advance directives in mental health requires a regulation that grants them a certain degree of rigidity, establishing, in a clear and coherent manner, the circumstances in which they are to be understood as revoked, whether an evaluation of capacity is used or the determination of the circumstances of revocation is left to the user himself.

Resumo: O presente trabalho busca abordar o problema bioético da colisão de vontades que pode ocorrer por ocasião da implementação das diretivas antecipadas em questões de saúde mental, com especial ênfase nas diretivas auto vinculantes, assinalando certos delineamentos a serem observados visando regular adequadamente esta circunstância, determinando aquelas manifestações e comportamentos que devem contar como revocatórios das instruções contidas no documento. Para esses efeitos emprega-se uma metodologia consistente na revisão da literatura pertinente. Conclui-se resultar impossível encontrar uma solução que permita satisfazer todos os interesses em conflito, porém que a implementação de diretivas antecipadas eficazes em saúde mental requer uma regulação que lhes conceda um certo grau de rigidez, estabelecendo, de maneira clara e coerente, as circunstâncias em que haverão de entender-se revogadas, seja empregando-se uma avaliação de capacidade, ou que se entregue a determinação das circunstancias da revogação ao próprio usuário.

Managing ethical aspects of advance directives in emergency care services.

BACKGROUND: In Hospital Emergency Department and Emergency Medical Services professionals experience situations in which they face difficulties or barriers to know patient's advance directives and implement them. OBJECTIVES: To analyse the barriers, facilitators, and ethical conflicts perceived by health professionals derived from the management of advance directives in emergency services. RESEARCH DESIGN, PARTICIPANTS, AND CONTEXT: This is a qualitative phenomenological study conducted with purposive sampling including a population of nursing and medical professionals linked to Hospital Emergency Department and Emergency Medical Services. Three focus groups were formed, totalling 24 participants. We performed an inductive-type thematic discourse analysis. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS: This study was approved by ethical committees of Ethical Commitee of Clínic Hospital (Barcelona) and Comittee of Emergency Medical Services (Barcelona). The participants received information about the purpose of the study. Patients' anonymity and willingness to participate in the study were guaranteed. FINDINGS: There were four types of barriers that hindered the proper management of patients' advance directives in Hospital Emergency Department and Emergency Medical Services: personal and professional, family members, organisational and structural, and those derived from the health system. These barriers caused ethical conflicts and hindered professionals' decision-making. DISCUSSION: These results are in line with those of previous studies and indicate that factors such as gender, professional category, and years of experience, in addition to professionals' beliefs and the opinions of colleagues and family members, can also influence the professionals' final decisions. CONCLUSION: The different strategies described in this study can contribute to the development of health policies and action protocols to help reduce both the barriers that hinder the correct management and implementation of advance directives and the ethical conflicts generated.

Psychiatric Advance Directives as an Ethical Communication Tool: An Analysis of Definitions.

A psychiatric advance directive (PAD) is a communication tool that promotes patients' autonomy and gives capacitated adults who live with serious mental illnesses the ability to record their preferences for care and designate a proxy decision maker before a healthcare crisis. Despite a high degree of interest by patients and previous studies that recommend that clinicians facilitate the completion of PADs, the rate of implementation of PAD remains low. Research indicates that many clinicians lack the necessary experience to facilitate the completion of PADs and to use them, and, as a consequence, do not effectively engage patients about PADs. This study developed practical recommendations for clinicians to improve their ability to communicate and facilitate PADs. We (1) thematically analyzed definitions of PADs published in 118 articles across disciplines, and (2) presented our recommendations for enhanced communication in clinical practice that emphasizes patient-centeredness, usefulness, and clarity, aligned with evidence-based practices that put patients' autonomy and understanding first. While there is no one-size-fits-all script to engage patients in complex conversations, our recommended strategies include an emphasis on patients' autonomy, the adaptation of word choices, the use of metaphor not simile, and checking for patients' understanding as effective methods of clinical communication.

[Choosing for euthanasia in advanced dementia; an analysis of the decisions by the Supreme Court]. / Euthanasie bij gevorderde dementie.

For many yearsthere has been confusion in the Netherlands about the question of whether doctors are entitled to end the life of incompetent patients with advanced dementia. The euthanasia control commission, the disciplinary courts and the penal court all answered this question differently after a doctor had performed euthanasia on a 74-year-old woman with advanced dementia and an advance directive made at an earlier stage. On 21 April 2020 the Supreme Court provided clarity, at least to a certain extent. This contribution presents an analysis of the decisions made by the Supreme Court and their implications for self-chosen death in patients with advanced dementia.

Cognitive Transformation, Dementia, and the Moral Weight of Advance Directives.

Dementia patients in the moderate-late stage of the disease can, and often do, express different preferences than they did at the onset of their condition. The received view in the philosophical literature argues that advance directives which prioritize the patient's preferences at onset ought to be given decisive moral weight in medical decision-making. Clinical practice, on the other hand, favors giving moral weight to the preferences expressed by dementia patients after onset. The purpose of this article is to show that the received view in the philosophical literature is inadequate and is out of touch with real clinical practice. I argue that having dementia is a cognitive transformative experience and that preference changes which result from this are legitimate and ought to be given moral weight in medical decision-making. This argument ought to encourage us to reduce our confidence in the moral weight of advance directives for dementia patients.

Against Ulysses contracts for patients with borderline personality disorder.

Patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) sometimes request to be admitted to hospital under compulsory care, often under the argument that they cannot trust their suicidal impulses if treated voluntarily. Thus, compulsory care is practised as a form of Ulysses contract in such situations. In this normative study we scrutinize the arguments commonly used in favour of such Ulysses contracts: (1) the patient lacking free will, (2) Ulysses contracts as self-paternalism, (3) the patient lacking decision competence, (4) Ulysses contracts as a defence of the authentic self, and (5) Ulysses contracts as a practical solution in emergency situations. In our study, we have accepted consequentialist considerations as well as considerations of autonomy. We conclude that compulsory care is not justified when there is a significant uncertainty of beneficial effects or uncertainty regarding the patient's decision-making capacity. We have argued that such uncertainty is present regarding BPD patients. Hence, Ulysses contracts including compulsory care should not be used for this group of patients.

Indeterminacy of identity and advance directives for death after dementia.

A persistent question in discussions of the ethics of advance directives for euthanasia is whether patients who go through deep psychological changes retain their identity. Rather than seek an account of identity that answers this question, I argue that responsible policy should directly address indeterminacy about identity directly. Three sorts of indeterminacy are distinguished. Two of these-epistemic indeterminacy and metaphysical indeterminacy-should be addressed in laws/policies regarding advance directives for euthanasia.

El Documento de Voluntades Anticipadas como instrumento de planificación ético-jurídico: especial atención a la salud mental / Advance Directives as an ethic-legal planning tool in a mental health context / El Document de Voluntats Anticipades com a instrument de planificació ètico-jurídic: especial atenció a la salut mental

La relación médico-paciente se encuentra en un proceso de cambio y evolución hacia un tratamiento más humano, sustentado sobre el principio de autonomía, con el objetivo de respetar los derechos del paciente y no sólo imponer la voluntad del médico. Un instrumento que salvaguarda esta situación es el Documento de Voluntades Anticipadas, como extensión del consentimiento informado. A pesar de su regulación internacional y nacional, en ciertos contextos, como el de la salud mental, el modelo hegemónico-paternalista sigue imperando y nos preguntamos por qué

The doctor-patient relations are undergoing a process of change and evolution towards a more humane approach, based on the principle of autonomy , with the aim of respecting the rights of patients and not just imposing the will of the phyisician. Advance Directives, as an extension of Informed Consent documents, can further safeguard such rights. Despite its international and national regulation, in certain contexts, such as mental health, the hegemonic-paternalistic model persists, and the authors question the underlying motive

La relació metge-pacient es troba en un procés de canvi I evolució cap a un tractament més humà basat en el principi d'autonomia, amb l'objectiu de respectar els drets del pacient I no només imposar la voluntat de metge. Un instrument que salvaguarda aquesta situació és el Document de Voluntats Anticipades, com a extensió del consentiment informat. Malgrat la seva regulació internacional I nacional, en certs contextos, com el de la salut mental, el model hegemònic-paternalista segueix imperant I ens preguntem per què

The necessity of ethical support for health care professionals in Intensive Care: Role and competencies of the Clinical Ethics Committee / La necesidad de apoyo ético para los profesionales de la salud en Medicina Intensiva: papel y competencias del Comité de Ética Asistencial / La necessitat de suport ètic per a professionals de la salut en Medicina Intensiva: paper I competències del Comitè d'Ètica Assistencial

Promoting measures that aim to mitigate discrepancies in the decision-making process, ensuring adequate training of physicians in the ethical aspect of care, and incrementing the wellbeing of patients and their families are becoming the principal objectives for high-quality care, especially in the Intensive Medicine Unit (ICU). In this paper, we're going to deal with the implementation of a specific ethics support for the ICU health care professionals, and considering the advanced Spanish experience on this matter, it deals with the current potentialities and limits of CEC's role to improve the quality of health care assistance

Promover medidas que tengan como objetivo mitigar las discrepancias en el proceso de toma de decisiones, garantizar la capacitación adecuada de los médicos en el aspecto ético de la atención e incrementar el bienestar de los pacientes y sus familias se están convirtiendo en los objetivos principales para una atención de alta calidad, especialmente en Medicina Intensiva. En este artículo abordaremos la implementación de un apoyo ético específico para los profesionales de la salud de la UCI. Teniendo en cuenta la amplia experiencia española en este tema, nos centraremos en el potencial y los límites actuales del rol del CEA para mejorar la calidad de asistencia sanitaria

Promoure mesures que tinguin com a objectiu mitigar els discrepàncies en el procés de presa de decisions, garantir la capacitació adequada dels metges respecte a l'aspecte ètic de l'atenció I incrementar el benestar dels pacients I els seves families s'estan convertint en els objectius principals per a una atenció de qualitat, especialment a Medicina Intensiva. En aquest article abordarem la implementació d'un soport ètic específic per a professionals de la salut de l'UCI. Tenint en compte l'àmplia experiència espanyola en aquest tema, ens centrarem en el potencial I els límits actuals del rol del CEA per a millorar la qualitat de l'assistència sanitària

The Dartmouth Dementia Directive: Experience with a Community-Based Workshop Pilot of a Novel Dementia-Specific Advance Directive.

Dementia is a growing issue at the end of life that presents unique challenges for advance care planning. Advance directives are a useful and important component of end-of-life planning, but standard advance directives have less utility in cases of loss of capacity due to dementia. An advance directive designed to specifically address end-of-life issues in the setting of dementia can provide patients with increased autonomy and caregivers with improved information about the desires of the individual in question. The Dartmouth Dementia Directive is a dementia-specific advance directive, available online, that seeks to address common concerns of individuals who are planning for dementia-related end-of-life care. This directive was piloted in a community-based workshop, which provided important details and perspective on the best use of dementia-specific advance directives in the greater population.

[Ethical issues in the clinical records of a group of terminal patients admitted into a third level hospital. Lacks and improvements.] / Cuestiones éticas en los registros clínicos de un grupo de pacientes terminales ingresados en un hospital de tercer nivel. Carencias y mejoras.

OBJECTIVE: Terminal patients and their relatives must know their real situation, and be treated according to the principle of autonomy, to establish therapeutic objectives adapted each one, according to their needs and decisions. The objective of this study is to identify the sufficient existence of records in the Medical Histories of terminal patients, which indicate their situation, such as the information given to the patients, or the LET, No-RCP or Z.51.5 codes, and the statistical relation they have with the sociodemographic and clinical variables. METHODS: Cross-sectional study in a third-level hospital, with patients admitted between January and December 2017, who died with terminal illness criteria. Data were collected from the medical records, and, fundamentally, from the nursing clinical notes. The statistical analysis was performed with the SPSS program, version 22. RESULTS: Participants were 140 people, 54.3% men, of 78.51 (SD=13.5) of middle age. People up to 70 years of age received less information (Odds ratio (OR): 0.077, 95% Confidence interval (CI): 0.015-0.390) and lower sedation (OR: 0.366, 95% CI: 0.149-0.899). Proceeding from city reduced the probability of receiving information (OR: 0.202; IC95%: 0.058-0.705). Presenting dyspnea reduced LTE (OR: 0.44, 95% CI: 0.20-093), No CPR (0.29, 95% CI: 0.12-0.68) and sedation (OR: 0.27; 95% CI: 0.12-060). Fatigue increased the probability of being Non-CPR (OR: 2.77, 95% CI: 1.166-6.627) and of receiving sedation (OR: 2.6, 95% CI: 1.065-6.331). CONCLUSIONS: Efforts to empower the patient in the decision of their process and the management of the information of their diagnosis and prognosis are still lacking. A greater and better clinical records facilitates knowing how actions are developed, allowing to identify and implement ethical and responsible interventions.

OBJETIVO: Los/las pacientes en estado terminal y sus familiares deben conocer su situación y ser tratados según el principio de autonomía, para establecer así objetivos terapéuticos adaptados a cada uno/a de acuerdo a sus necesidades y decisiones. El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar la existencia de registros en las historias clínicas de pacientes terminales que señalen su situación, como la información ofrecida, los códigos de limitación del esfuerzo terapéutico (LET), la no reanimación cardiopulmonar (No-RCP) o Z.51.5, y la relación con las variables sociodemográficas y clínicas. METODOS: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo transversal en un hospital de tercer nivel, con pacientes ingresados entre enero y diciembre de 2017, que fallecieron con criterios de enfermedad terminal. Se recogieron los datos de las historias clínicas y, fundamentalmente, de las notas clínicas de enfermería. El análisis estadístico se realizó con el programa SPSS, versión 22. RESULTADOS: Participaron 140 personas, 54,3% de hombres, de 78,51 años (Desviación estándar -DS-=13,5) de edad media. Las personas menores de 70 años recibieron menos información (Odds Ratio -OR-: 0,077; Intervalo de Confianza -IC- 95%: 0,015-0,390) y menor sedación (OR: 0,366; IC 95%: 0,149-0,899). Proceder de ciudad redujo la probabilidad de recibir información (OR: 0,202; IC 95%: 0,058-0,705). Presentar disnea redujo la LET (OR: 0,44; IC 95%: 0,20-093), el No RCP (0,29; IC 95%: 0,12-0,68) y la sedación (OR:0,27; IC 95%: 0,12-060). La fatiga aumentó la probabilidad de ser No RCP (OR: 2,77; IC 95%: 1,163-6,627) y de recibir sedación (OR:2,6; IC 95%: 1,065-6,331). CONCLUSIONES: Los esfuerzos por empoderar al paciente en la toma de decisiones son todavía escasos. Un mayor y mejor registro facilita conocer cómo se desarrollan las actuaciones, permitiendo identificar y poner en marcha intervenciones éticas y responsables.

The Briggsian Heresy? Should Previously Expressed Wishes Determine Best Interests in Decisions Relating to Withdrawal of Clinically-Assisted Nutrition and Hydration?

This paper examines the Court of Protection decision in Briggs v Briggs. It considers whether the approach of the Court, which gave effective decisive weight to a patient's previously expressed wishes about whether he should be kept alive in a minimally conscious state, is a proper application of the 'best interests' test under the Mental Capacity Act 2005. It assesses whether the Briggs approach is effectively applying a 'substituted judgement' test and considers the difficulties in ascertaining what a person's actual wishes are.

Advance Research Directives: Legal and Ethical Issues and Insights from a National Survey of Dementia Researchers in Australia.

Advance research directives (ARDs) are a means by which people can document their wishes about research participation in the event of future incapacity. ARDs have been endorsed in some ethics guidelines and position statements, however, formal legal recognition is limited. A few empirical studies have investigated the views of researchers and other stakeholders on ARDs and tested strategies to implement such directives. To further knowledge in this area, we undertook a survey of dementia researchers in Australia (n= 63) to examine their views on ARDs. Most of the survey respondents (>80%) thought ARDs would promote autonomy in decision-making and enable opportunities for people with cognitive impairment to be included in research. Respondents indicated concern about directives not being available when needed (71%) and that ethics committees would not accept ARDs (60%). Few respondents had used ARDs, but a majority (from 57-80%) would be willing to offer ARDs for a range of research activities, such as observing behaviour and taking measures, blood samples or scans. Nearly all respondents (92%) agreed that current dissent should override prior wishes stated in an ARD. The survey findings are contextualised with attention to ethics guidelines, laws and practices to support advance research planning.

Bioethical implications of end-of-life decision-making in patients with dementia: a tale of two societies.

End-of-life decision-making in patients with dementia is a complex topic. Belgium and the Netherlands have been at the forefront of legislative advancement and progressive societal changes concerning the perspectives toward physician-assisted death (PAD). Careful consideration of clinical and social aspects is essential during the end-of-life decision-making process in patients with dementia. Geriatric assent provides the physician, the patient and his family the opportunity to end life with dignity. Unbearable suffering, decisional competence, and awareness of memory deficits are among the clinical considerations that physicians should incorporate during the end-of-life decision-making process. However, as other societies introduce legislature granting the right of PAD, new social determinants should be considered; Mexico City is an example. Current perspectives regarding advance euthanasia directives (AED) and PAD in patients with dementia are evolving. A new perspective that hinges on the role of the family and geriatric assent should help culturally heterogeneous societies in the transition of their public health care policies regarding end-of-life choices.

Voluntades anticipadas y consentimiento informado en Medicina Intensiva / Advance directives and informed consent in Intensive Care / Voluntats anticipades i consentiment informat en Medicina Intensiva

Desde su origen, la Medicina Intensiva y la Bioética han compartido un desarrollo común, reforzándose entre ambas. Los límites de la tecnología, el cambio en la relación clínica, el respeto a las preferencias de los pacientes, han generado distintos conflictos éticos entre profesionales, pacientes y familiares. El objetivo del presente artículo es analizar como los pacientes que ingresan en las unidades de cuidados intensivos pueden participar en la toma de decisiones sobre actuaciones presentes (consentimiento informado) o futuras (voluntades anticipadas) e identificar el papel tanto del profesional sanitario como de la familia durante todo el proceso

Since its origin, Intensive Medicine and Bioethics have shared a common development, reinforcing each other. The limits of technology, the change in the clinical relationship, and respect for patients' preferences have generated different ethical conflicts between professionals, patients and family members. The objective of this article is to analyze how patients admitted to intensive care units can participate in decision-making about present (informed consent) or future (advance directives) actions and to identify the role of both the health professional and the family during the whole process

Des del seu origen, la Medicina Intensiva i la Bioètica han compartit un desenvolupament comú, reforçant-se mútuament. Els límits de la tecnologia, el canvi en la relació clínica, el respecte a les preferències dels pacients, han generat diferents conflictes ètics entre professionals, pacients i familiars. L'objectiu del present article és analitzar com els pacients que ingressen en les unitats de vigilància intensiva poden participar en la presa de decisions sobre actuacions presents (consentiment informat) o futures (voluntats anticipades) i identificar el paper tant del professional sanitari com de la família durant tot el procés

Eudaimonia and well-being: questioning the moral authority of advance directives in dementia.

This paper revisits Ronald Dworkin's influential position that a person's advance directive for future health care and medical treatment retains its moral authority beyond the onset of dementia, even when respecting this authority involves foreshortening the life of someone who is happy and content and who no longer remembers or identifies with instructions included within the advance directive. The analysis distils a eudaimonist perspective from Dworkin's argument and traces variations of this perspective in further arguments for the moral authority of advance directives by other authors. It then critiques a feature of the eudaimonist perspectives within these arguments-namely, the position that dementia has a retroactive negative impact on what a person has previously valued-and challenges the commonly held assumption underlying them that a person's life and well-being have relatively low value beyond the onset of dementia. Although advance directives have moral authority as a means of guiding one's future health care, accounts that dismiss the value of the lives and well-being of people living with dementia should be questioned to the extent that such accounts are used to support the moral authority of advance directives stipulating measures to foreshorten individuals' lives.

Reducing Discrepancy Between Code Status Orders and Physician Orders for Life-Sustaining Therapies: Results of a Quality Improvement Initiative.

BACKGROUND: Advanced care planning through Physician Order For Life-Sustaining Therapies (POLST) has been encouraged by professional societies. But these documents may be overlooked or ignored during hospitalization and "full-code" orders written as a default, putting patients at risk for unwanted resuscitation. After 2 instances of unwanted resuscitation in which limited support POLSTs were ignored, a series of improvements were implemented. This study measured the effectiveness of those steps in reducing POLST code status discrepancy. METHODS: Pre-post implementation chart review of randomly chosen medical admissions to determine the rate of discordance between POLST orders (when present) and admission code status orders. Physician Order For Life-Sustaining Therapies were classified as either "full" or "limited" based on orders for life-sustaining therapies on the form. Chi-square tests or Fisher exact tests were performed on binary data to identify statistically significant differences at the 95% confidence level between pre- and postimplementation admissions. RESULTS: In all, 444 preimplementation and 448 postimplementation admissions were evaluated. Discrepant code status orders for those with limited POLST fell from 10 (22.7%) of 44 preimplementation to 3 (4.6%) of 65 after implementation, P = .006. The number of documented code status discussions in admission notes increased from 19.6% to 63.6% (P < .001). The median age of all POLST in the chart was 1.2 years. CONCLUSIONS: Among those patients with limited POLST orders, discrepant full-code orders increase the potential for unwanted resuscitation. Multistep improvements including documentation templates improved the process of verifying end-of-life wishes and increased meaningful code status discussions. The rate of discrepant orders fell in response to process improvements.

Making Medical Decisions for Incapacitated Patients Without Proxies: Part II.

In the United States, there is no consensus about who should make decisions in acute but non-emergent situations for incapacitated patients who lack surrogates. For more than a decade, our academic medical center has utilized community volunteers from the hospital ethics committee to engage in shared decision-making with the medical providers for these patients. In order to add a different point of view and minimize conflict of interest, the volunteers are non-clinicians who are not employed by the hospital. Using case examples and interviews with the community members, this paper describes how the protocol has translated into practice over the years since its inception. Members reported comfort with the role as well as satisfaction with the thoroughness of their discussions with the medical team. They acknowledged feelings of moral uncertainty, but expressed confidence in the process. Questions raised by the experience are discussed. Overall, the protocol has provided oversight, transparency, and protection from conflict of interest to the decision-making process for this vulnerable patient population.

Making Medical Decisions for Incapacitated Patients Without Proxies: Part I.

To date no one has identified or described the population of incapacitated patients being treated in an inpatient setting who lack proxy decision-makers. Nor, despite repeated calls for protocols to be developed for decision-making, has any institution reported on the utilization of such a protocol. In 2005, our urban tertiary care hospital instituted a protocol utilizing community members of the ethics committee to meet with the medical providers and engage in shared decision-making for patients without proxies (PWPs). We conducted a retrospective chart review and in this paper describe nearly 200 patients who were identified and treated according to the protocol over a 12 year period. After an aggressive search, family members were located for a surprising number of patients, leaving 80 patients who needed decisions to be made utilizing the PWP committee. We review the decisions required, the results of the shared decision-making meetings, and the patient outcomes. Our experience has shown that a protocol involving community volunteers to make decisions for PWPs in a timely manner is feasible and ethically defensible. The protocol has been accepted by physicians and utilized with increasing frequency. Because it was possible to gather at least minimal information on most patients, a standard of "informed best interest" was used to make decisions. PWP committee recommendations varied, but in all cases agreement was reached with the attending physicians.